Abstract:
Access to safe excreta disposal is a basic human right and an essential element of human development. Developing countries (like india) have constructed millions of toilets with on-site sanitation technologies (osts). However, these osts lack the required management system for collection, transportation and disposal of faecal sludge (fs, sludge getting accumulated in ost), leading to considerable water and soil pollution. The major challenge in fs management is the collation of scattered data and concentrated experiences (i.e., Existing knowledge remains with the practitioners in the field without a written record). Therefore, a critical review of existing knowledge on ost, fs collection, transportation, and its utilisation is essential. This study highlighted shortcomings associated with existing ost, fs collection, transportation, and treatment systems. Furthermore, this study provided a framework for appropriate selection of ost based on available sanitation chains, and a critical analysis of fs characteristics (i.e., Total solids, ph, electrical conductivity, biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and pathogens of fs ranged from 830 to 72000 mg/l, 6.8 to 7.8, 1.9 to 3.5 ms/cm, 500–5000 mg/l, 100 to 49,000 mg/l, and 106 to 107 e-coli and 103 to 104 parasitic worms per litre of fs, respectively) to design treatment systems for fs utilisation as a resource in agricultural, aqua-culture, and construction application. © 2021 elsevier inc.